Procter & Gamble: A Company with Global Operations

Procter & Gamble (P&G) is a leading manufacturer of personal and home care products. P&G is an international company that operates in 40 different countries. This paper will examine the environmental factors that affect how effective P&G’s global marketing efforts are. These factors known as environmental forces include social and economic forces, as well as technological, regulatory, and competitive forces.Any business operating internationally is impacted by these environmental factors which affect how the company will market its product. Understanding how these forces impact its operations will help P&G understand the interworkings of the economy both globally and domestically and the trends that currently impact its marketing efforts, which will help P&G, create and successfully implement its marketing plan. Operating Globally:In this day and age, globalization has allowed companies to operate internationally. According to Panayotou (2000), â€Å"Globalization is an on-go ing process of global integration that encompasses economic integration through trade, political interaction, information technology, and culture. Globalization brings people, culture, and information together. Globalization has helped P&G operate globally because it lowers trade barriers and increases the dependence between countries for goods and services, which means there is a bigger market for the goods that companies like P&G offers.Globalization came about as countries saw that other countries could produce products better and cheaper than another country could (comparative advantage), so countries began producing what they had an advantage in and selling it to other countries. This trading of products became an accepted practice and eventually spurred economic growth. This caused countries and  businesses to begin operating in the global market because it allowed companies to tap into this greater demand and new market for goods and services, which would expand their custo mer base and profit potential. Procter & Gamble: The Importance of Demographics & Physical InfrastructureP&G knows that when operating globally the company needs to market its product, and this means you have to have a clear understanding of the market of people that will be using the product. This means understanding the people and their different cultures. Every country has a different culture. Culture tells a story about where people come from, who they are, and what is socially acceptable. Culture affects the way people perceive the world around them, and this means it will affect the way products should be marketed. A significant part of our culture is our background, characteristics, and demographics.Demographics provide vital information about a country’s people. Information about a country's demographics help P&G to determine the right people to market its products to and how to appeal to them in its marketing plan. P&G manufacturers and sells its products world-wide including nations outside North America, Western Europe, Japan and Korea where there is a growing demand for its products. These countries represent places with high populations of people who are aging and take care of themselves, which means they need basic household items which P&G manufacturers such as detergents and grooming products.P&G is well- positioned in the industry segments and markets in which it operates. P&G’s success is a result of its ability to adapt its marketing mix to the standards and culture of the country in which it operates. It does this by having a good understanding of the country’s demographics and its physical infrastructure which help facilitate the development and operations of its companies. A countries physical infrastructure helps marketers determine how products will go from the manufacturer, to retailers, to the customer. Going Global: The Effect of Trade Practices and AgreementsTrade is an integral part of any country’s grow th and stability. Trade is fostered by global economic interdependence and gives counties access to a  wider array of products and services. Over the past decade trade has become global; trade negotiations have expanded to include more countries and are now regulated by international agreements and the World Trade Organization (Boundless, 2013). Trade has created a global economic interdependency. Global economic interdependence illustrates the ideal that no country is completely self-sufficient. â€Å"There is a need for trade among nations for goods and services as well as the resources needed to survive and grow in the global economy† (Nebraska Department of Education, 2013, para1).This means that decisions made in one country will directly affect what happens in another country making countries more susceptible to economic problems. Although, trade increases a country’s wealth trade also leads to inequality which is why countries have trade agreements. Trade agre ements are negotiated by each nation who has their own interests’ in-mind, which means some level of protectionism to protect industries that are essential to that nation (Boundless, 2013). Costs of Operating Globally: Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977Any company with international operations is susceptible to a number of risks. These risks include complying with U.S. laws affecting operations outside of the United States, such as the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act. The Foreign Corruption Act was developed to eliminate the potential of bribery to foreign officials, thwart money laundering, and reduce corruption and restore confidence in the business system.When operating internationally, companies must abide by several laws and legislation on the local, national, and international level. This is because the company conducts business with other nations and this means abiding by the laws, rules and customs which govern the business transaction between the two nations. Furthe rmore, companies must also take into account that political systems directly influence international relations between nations.This is because each country has it own laws and acceptable business practices. As well as its own political system that determines what a company can do when trying to conduct business in that country. When conducting business with different countries it is important to be aware of its political systems as it determines where products can be marketed and  what laws must be abided by (Chavis, 2013).TechnologyTechnology changes the way companies operate and conduct business. Technology allows companies with international operations to achieve success by allowing them to be innovative. Technology helps companies improve its equipment and manufacturing processes and anticipating consumer acceptance. On a global perspective, technology allows companies to go outside the traditional confines of selling a product and enables them to sell their products virtually anywhere. Technology has influenced every aspect of business from increasing efficiency to providing access to information and changing how companies communicate with their customers. Social Responsibility, Ethics, & Legal Obligations:To be profitable companies must understand that there is more to staying in business than earning a hefty amount of money. Companies must also consider the social implications of their operations. This is especially important for companies operating in the global market because a damaging reputation can impact its sales domestically and internationally. Any company looking to stay in business must abide by the laws and legislation of the company in which it is operating. For example, P&G is subject to tax regulations in the United States and multiple foreign jurisdictions, and it is their responsibility to be aware of any changes in the laws and regulations of these countries.In business, social responsibility and ethics go hand in hand. A company tha t seeks to have a positive impact on society is usually a company that seeks to operate responsibly and in doing so the company upholds the highest moral and ethical standards. Ethics help ensure that companies use good business practices in its operations and help companies fulfill its social responsibility to help improve the lives of its people.For P&G social responsibility and ethics drive the company. P&G is in the business of â€Å"providing products and services of superior quality and value that improve the lives of the world’s consumers, now and for generations to come† (P&G, 2013, para.2). P&G believes that by being socially responsible, and ethical its â€Å"consumers will reward P&G with leadership sales, profit and value  creation, allowing our people, our shareholders, and the communities in which we live and work to prosper† (P&G, 2013). ConclusionInternational companies understand that success is not just creating an appealing marketing campaig n. To be successful companies have to plan extensively and have a good understanding of the global market. To market a product internationally companies must examine and plan for the environmental factors that influence how effective their global marketing efforts are. In doing so, the company will effectively reach its new market of customers and create a unique position in the minds of its customer which creates brand loyalty, generates sales, and increase profit potential.

Cultural Critique on the Internet

Through the onset of industrialization, countries all over the world had experienced remarkable changes in its society. Sophisticated technologies, gadgets and facilities had been made available to man. These inventions, which are results of man’s work, pave the way to the society’s advancements. One of the most remarkable artifacts that the new milieu brought into picture is the internet.The advent of the internet came into vision â€Å"when people in the early 1960s saw great potential value in allowing computers to share information on research and development in scientific and military fields† (Brief History of the Internet). J. C. R. Licklider was said to be the pioneering person of the internet. In 1962, he proposed a global network of computers and work to develop it (Brief History of the Internet). The initial efforts of Licklider had inspired other people to participate in designing and bringing internet into a complete picture.The theory of pocket switc hing developed by Leonard Kleinrock ‘forms the basis of internet connections. ’ In the year 1969, ARPANET (initial name given to internet) was brought on line. It was first used to connect four Universities in the United States to provide a channel for research communication and exchange. Early times of internet use and connection were very complex. Furthermore, the used of the internet was only limited to education, government and research use.Commercial used of the internet was then prohibited. This prohibition was put to an end when the ‘dot-com boom’ in the second half of 1990’s hit the stock market and media (Gozzi Jr. 470). Investments for the commercialization of the internet were in demand during these years. It was also during these times when Microsoft had its ‘full scale entry into browser, server and Internet Service Provider market completed the shift t a commercially based Internet’ (A Brief History of the Internet).As seen today, the internet industry or the ‘dot-com’ economy is continuously growing and taking an advance step everyday. The definition as well as the description of the internet was finalized and passed as a resolution on October 24, 1995. The following statement provides the definition and description of the internet: RESOLUTION: The Federal Networking Council (FNC) agrees that the following language reflects our definition of the term â€Å"Internet†.â€Å"Internet† refers to the global information system that — (i) is logically linked together by a globally unique address space based on the Internet Protocol (IP) or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons; (ii) is able to support communications using the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons, and/or other IP-compatible protocols; and (iii) provides, uses or makes accessible, either publicly or privately, high level services layered on the communications and related infrastructure described herein (Leiner et al n. p).This technology grants mechanism to people throughout the globe to process and relay information without regard for geographic location. It has been a channel for communication, business, community operations and education. It opened the possibilities of on line learning and business negotiation and made the life of individuals to be modern and sophisticated. Through the onset of this technology, advancement in the society and man’s culture also took place. The benefits that this technology bring is said to be limitless and essential. However, at present times, people seem to abuse the used of the internet.Such abuse initiated the negative implications and harm of the said artifact to the society as a whole. The community had too much relied on the features of the internet. In an article written by Greenblatt, he argued that the rise of the internet had negatively affected traditional television (1 49). It is feared that the internet would eventually kill television as it does in the music industry and in the print media. Competition between traditional television and the internet arises. It was noted in the article of Greenblatt that people spend less time in viewing the television than they do in the net.Through on line streaming, watching sports, concert of artists, etc is now possible. It is showed that the traditional way of watching (i. e. with the use of television) had been altered due to internet boom. While it can be said that the presence of internet provides the benefit for individuals to watch programs in their most convenient time, it is still unfair because other industries suffer. Too much dependence of the public to the internet had brought the problem of unfair competition. People’s way of socializing was also altered through the used of the internet.The usual way of meeting and knowing a particular person had been changed. Most people use the internet to meet and socialize with new people. This has been made possible through the used of chat rooms as well as other internet sites like friendster. The value of having friends is not the main question being posed. The threat for such sites and chat rooms is the opportunity for on line prostitution and other crimes to take place (Clemmitt 450). The internet had (in no doubt) expanded prostitution, bringing it available not only on the area where a certain prostitute lives but also in nearby cities or town.The invention of the internet has also given rise to a new kind of addiction, which is online porn addiction where ‘there's no doubt that some people's porn consumption gets them in trouble — in the form of maxed-out credit cards, lost sleep, neglected responsibilities, or neglected loved ones’ (Martin F. Downs). Violent acts of children are also partly blamed on the internet. On line games which most children and youngsters play depict violence which eventually changes their psychological behavior.The increase in violent acts of these youngsters eventually contributes to an increase in crime. Early exposure of these youngsters to act of violence and other adult materials can bring unfavorable effect to their perception about the reality. Addiction to these on line games had also reduced their time for physical activities therefore bringing the problem of obesity. ‘Dr Robinson from the British Nutrition foundation said 40% of boys and 60% of girls were found to spend less than the recommended one hour per day in physical activity’ (BBC News).The most controversial and frightening contribution of the internet is the opportunity that it provides for act of terrorism. Terrorist are availing the opportunity to connect with the internet and used this artifact as a propaganda tool (Anderson 25). Since every machine that is connected to the internet is potentially a broad casting station, a printing press or a place of assembly, terro rists can now disseminate their information undiluted by the media and untouched by government censors. In the past, the al-Quaeda had benefited from the extensive use of the internet not until their network was intercepted.The following statement, which basically tackles on how terrorists’ actions were improved through the aid of the internet, was cited in Anderson’s work (2003). â€Å"Using the Internet for communication can increase speed of mobilization and allow more dialogue between members, which enhances the organization’s flexibility, since tactics can be adjusted more frequently. Individuals with a common agenda and goals can form subgroups, meet at a target location, conduct terrorist operations, and then readily determine their relationships and re-disperse† (27).Documents accessed through internet connection also provided the Al-Queada to obtain details regarding the design lay out of the World Trade Center which contributed to the success of making their plans. The Al-Queada group had developed their action in using the internet as a tool for terrorism. It is alarming to think that future terrorists would follow the step taken by the mentioned group and may even develop more powerful and sophisticated programs that would aid in the threat of terrorism. The internet had initiated the risk of cyber terrorism.Internet’s role in shaping today’s culture is indeed remarkable and at the same time threatening. Pioneers of this artifact may have the pure intention to bring the world in the state of modernization. However, it is sad to know that upon the onset of modernization comes the threat and harm that the internet posed. Overuse, misused and overdependence of people in this artifact will in no doubt bring several detrimental effects. As discussed from the examples above, actions of people as well as their cultural identity are negatively being altered by the mere presence of the internet.The internet’s original purpose of making information accessible, sharing this information in a fast pace and making long distance communication possible had been abusively used by some people therefore bringing a negative impact on the society’s culture. Our world nowadays is continuously progressing and accompanying this progress is the innovation of new artifacts. Truly, these new artifacts had taken a vital role in shaping our society’s culture as well as shaping the minds of people. These innovations would be more likely to be inevitable.Every new artifact is invented to somehow benefit and bring people a comfortable way of living, however, one should not overlook the harm that these new artifacts may bring. Every time that we take a step towards advancement comes the opportunity for societal and cultural change. These changes bring forth several issues and problems that are more likely to have negative outcomes. The internet has had its effects on society at present and it wil l have its effects in the future. The future of the internet is faced with the question on how management of change and evolution would be done.Let us not keep ourselves to be tongue tied and see how the negative outcomes abolish our cultural and societal identity. We should act on this matter. Work Cited Anderson, Alison. â€Å"Risk, Terrorism, and the Internet. † Knowledge, Technology & Policy 16 (2003): 24-33 BBC News, â€Å"Health Symptoms in Obese children. † 16 May 2008 . â€Å"Brief History of the Internet. † 28 May 2008 . Clemmitt, Marcia. â€Å"Prostitution debate. † CQ Researcher, May 23, 2008: CQ Researcher Online. Capella Lib. 29 May 2008 . Downs, Martin F. â€Å"Is pornography addictive. † 16 May 2008 . Greenblatt, Allan. â€Å"Television's future. † CQ Researcher, February 16, 2007: CQ Researcher Online. Capella Lib. 29 May 2008 . Leiner Barry M. , V. G. Cerf, D. D. Clark, R. E. Kahn, L. Kleinrock, D. C. Lynch, J. Postel, L. G. Roberts and S. Wolff. â€Å"Brief History of Internet. † 10 December 2003. Internet society. 28 May 2008 . Cultural Critique on the Internet Through the onset of industrialization, countries all over the world had experienced remarkable changes in its society. Sophisticated technologies, gadgets and facilities had been made available to man. These inventions, which are results of man’s work, pave the way to the society’s advancements. One of the most remarkable artifacts that the new milieu brought into picture is the internet.The advent of the internet came into vision â€Å"when people in the early 1960s saw great potential value in allowing computers to share information on research and development in scientific and military fields† (Brief History of the Internet). J. C. R. Licklider was said to be the pioneering person of the internet. In 1962, he proposed a global network of computers and work to develop it (Brief History of the Internet). The initial efforts of Licklider had inspired other people to participate in designing and bringing internet into a complete picture.The theory of pocket switc hing developed by Leonard Kleinrock ‘forms the basis of internet connections. ’ In the year 1969, ARPANET (initial name given to internet) was brought on line. It was first used to connect four Universities in the United States to provide a channel for research communication and exchange. Early times of internet use and connection were very complex. Furthermore, the used of the internet was only limited to education, government and research use.Commercial used of the internet was then prohibited. This prohibition was put to an end when the ‘dot-com boom’ in the second half of 1990’s hit the stock market and media (Gozzi Jr. 470). Investments for the commercialization of the internet were in demand during these years. It was also during these times when Microsoft had its ‘full scale entry into browser, server and Internet Service Provider market completed the shift t a commercially based Internet’ (A Brief History of the Internet).As seen today, the internet industry or the ‘dot-com’ economy is continuously growing and taking an advance step everyday. The definition as well as the description of the internet was finalized and passed as a resolution on October 24, 1995. The following statement provides the definition and description of the internet: RESOLUTION: The Federal Networking Council (FNC) agrees that the following language reflects our definition of the term â€Å"Internet†.â€Å"Internet† refers to the global information system that — (i) is logically linked together by a globally unique address space based on the Internet Protocol (IP) or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons; (ii) is able to support communications using the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons, and/or other IP-compatible protocols; and (iii) provides, uses or makes accessible, either publicly or privately, high level services layered on the communications and related infrastructure described herein (Leiner et al n.p). This technology grants mechanism to people throughout the globe to process and relay information without regard for geographic location. It has been a channel for communication, business, community operations and education. It opened the possibilities of on line learning and business negotiation and made the life of individuals to be modern and sophisticated. Through the onset of this technology, advancement in the society and man’s culture also took place. The benefits that this technology bring is said to be limitless and essential.However, at present times, people seem to abuse the used of the internet. Such abuse initiated the negative implications and harm of the said artifact to the society as a whole. The internet has also brought succor to the lives of many people in economically less developed countries that have a somewhat substandard educational system. This is by way of accessing the on line learning materials of world-class universities around the world. They are able to access up-to-date information on almost all subjects and upgrade their knowledge.The community had too much relied on the features of the internet. In an article written by Greenblatt, he argued that the rise of the internet had negatively affected traditional television (149). It is feared that the internet would eventually kill television as it does in the music industry and in the print media. Competition between traditional television and the internet arises. It was noted in the article of Greenblatt that people spend less time in viewing the television than they do in the net. Through on line streaming, watching sports, concert of artists, etc is now possible.It is showed that the traditional way of watching (i. e. with the use of television) had been altered due to internet boom. While it can be said that the presence of internet provides the benefit for individuals to watch programs in thei r most convenient time, it is still unfair because other industries suffer. Too much dependence of the public to the internet had brought the problem of unfair competition. People’s way of socializing was also altered through the use of the internet. The usual way of meeting and knowing a particular person had been changed.Most people use the internet to meet and socialize with new people. This has been made possible through the use of chat rooms as well as other internet sites like friendster. The value of having friends is not the main question being posed. The threat for such sites and chat rooms is the opportunity for on line prostitution and other crimes to take place (Clemmitt 450). The internet had (in no doubt) expanded prostitution, bringing it available not only on the area where a certain prostitute lives but also in nearby cities or town.The invention of the internet has also given rise to a new kind of addiction, which is online porn addiction where ‘there' s no doubt that some people's porn consumption gets them in trouble — in the form of maxed-out credit cards, lost sleep, neglected responsibilities, or neglected loved ones’ (Martin F. Downs). Violent acts of children are also partly blamed on the internet. On line games which most children and youngsters play depict violence which eventually changes their psychological behavior.The increase in violent acts of these youngsters eventually contributes to an increase in crime. Early exposure of these youngsters to act of violence and other adult materials can bring unfavorable effect to their perception about the reality. Addiction to these on line games had also reduced their time for physical activities therefore bringing the problem of obesity. ‘Dr Robinson from the British Nutrition foundation said 40% of boys and 60% of girls were found to spend less than the recommended one hour per day in physical activity’ (BBC News).Moreover, child pornography on the internet is one of the bad practices that the internet has been able to cultivate. Aside from children being used as prostitutes, other young children also visit pornographic sites. This does untold psychological damage to these children as they do not know what is right and what is not. They are sometimes compelled to practice what they have seen, thereby contributing to the increasing level of moral decadence. Also the danger of teenage pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases and other forms of bad deeds has been blown out of proportion by exposure to the internet.The most controversial and frightening contribution of the internet is the opportunity that it provides for act of terrorism. Terrorist are availing the opportunity to connect with the internet and used this artifact as a propaganda tool (Anderson 25). Acts of terrorism can now be perpetuated now, easier than before with the use of the internet. The most benign way of this act is the production of malicious softwares i n the form of computer viruses, worms, Trojans and crawlers. This causes instability of these computer machines, to the detriment of the user.every machine that is connected to the internet is potentially a broad casting station, a printing press or a place of assembly, terrorists can now disseminate their information undiluted by the media and untouched by government censors. In the past, the al-Quaeda had benefited from the extensive use of the internet not until their network was intercepted. The following statement, which basically tackles on how terrorists’ actions were improved through the aid of the internet, was cited in Anderson’s work (2003).â€Å"Using the Internet for communication can increase speed of mobilization and allow more dialogue between members, which enhances the organization’s flexibility, since tactics can be adjusted more frequently. Individuals with a common agenda and goals can form subgroups, meet at a target location, conduct terr orist operations, and then readily determine their relationships and re-disperse† (27). Documents accessed through internet connection also provided the Al-Queada to obtain details regarding the design lay out of the World Trade Center which contributed to the success of making their plans.The Al-Queada group had developed their action in using the internet as a tool for terrorism. It is alarming to think that future terrorists would follow the step taken by the mentioned group and may even develop more powerful and sophisticated programs that would aid in the threat of terrorism. The internet had initiated the risk of cyber terrorism. Internet’s role in shaping today’s culture is indeed remarkable and at the same time threatening. Pioneers of the internet may have the pure intention to bring the world in the state of modernization.However, it is sad to know that upon the onset of modernization comes the threat and harm that the internet posed. Overuse, misuse an d overdependence of people in this technology will in no doubt bring several detrimental effects. As discussed from the examples above, actions of people as well as their cultural identity are negatively being altered by the mere presence of the internet. The world is increasingly been described as being ‘westernised’ since everyone, especially the youth, are increasingly turning to the way of life of the Americans and Europeans.The internet’s original purpose of making information accessible, sharing this information in a fast pace and making long distance communication possible had been abusively used by some people therefore bringing a negative impact on the society’s culture. Our world nowadays is continuously progressing and accompanying this progress is the innovation of new artifacts. Truly, these new artifacts had taken a vital role in shaping our society’s culture as well as shaping the minds of people. These innovations would be more likel y to be inevitable.Every new artifact is invented to somehow benefit and bring people a comfortable way of living, however, one should not overlook the harm that these new artifacts may bring. Every time that we take a step towards advancement comes the opportunity for societal and cultural change. These changes bring forth several issues and problems that are more likely to have negative outcomes. The internet has had its effects on society at present and it will have its effects in the future. The future of the internet is faced with the question on how management of change and evolution would be done.The internet has got the potential of turning the world to a single-culture, single language world. This would have far reaching effects as it would eliminate the numerous world cultures that have been built since the beginning of time. All the ancient civilizations are still visible today because they have been preserved in one way or the other. Because of this, people travel to the se locations as tourists. In this way, the memories are kept alive. The rate the internet craze is going, this trend is likely to be reversed since people can see these locations on the screens of their computers.Let us not keep ourselves to be tongue tied and see how the negative outcomes abolish our cultural and societal identity. We should act on this matter. Action, they say, is louder than voice. Work Cited Anderson, Alison. â€Å"Risk, Terrorism, and the Internet. † Knowledge, Technology & Policy 16 (2003): 24-33 BBC News, â€Å"Health Symptoms in Obese children. † 16 May 2008 . â€Å"Brief History of the Internet. † 28 May 2008 . Clemmitt, Marcia. â€Å"Prostitution debate. † CQ Researcher, May 23, 2008: CQ Researcher Online. Capella Lib.29 May 2008 . Downs, Martin F. â€Å"Is pornography addictive. † 16 May 2008 . Greenblatt, Allan. â€Å"Television's future. † CQ Researcher, February 16, 2007: CQ Researcher Online. Capella Lib. 29 M ay 2008 . Leiner Barry M. , V. G. Cerf, D. D. Clark, R. E. Kahn, L. Kleinrock, D. C. Lynch, J. Postel, L. G. Roberts and S. Wolff. â€Å"Brief History of Internet. † 10 December 2003. Internet society. 28 May 2008 .

Special courts Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Special courts - Research Paper Example The establishment of special courts aims at handling certain matters, which cannot be handled by other courts. With the establishment of special courts, there is provision of expertise in the matter under consideration since such courts have specialized knowledge on certain matters (Goodnow, 2005). An example of a special court One significant example of a special court discussed by Champion and others is the United States tax Court, which refers to a special court that deals with tax cases involving the federal government. The judges of this court include specialists who have specialized knowledge in tax law. This gives them the advantage of better understanding unique issues, which may relate to law that focuses on taxes. In the United States, the Tax Court can be regarded as a national court, and the headquarters of this court can be found in Washington, D.C. This court has the jurisdiction to handle all cases, which deal with tax issues all over the United States. The judges of t he Tax Court make visits to various parts of the United States and avail themselves to hear cases, which relate to tax issues all over the country (Okwuosah, 2008). The Congress established this court under Article I of the Constitution of the United States. ... The U.S. constitution gives this court the powers to award people who reveal tax discrepancies referred as whistleblowers, as well as establish the methods that will be used to classify employees working in various positions within the country (Champion et. al., 2012). In order for this court to hear a case, there ought to be a petition submitted by the taxpayer within ninety days. Taxpayers do not have the mandate to request the Tax Court to conduct jury trials. The court has to hear a case before the taxpayer is ordered to pay any amount, which may be disputed. The judges of the Tax Court comprise of 19 members who have been appointed by the president. With the various decisions issued by the court, the court can be regarded as effective in its ruling. The decisions issued by the court can either be memorandum or regular decision. This ensures that no party is favored at the expense of the other; as the judges have to evaluate the unique situation surrounding a certain case before giving a ruling. This court also enhances efficiency since it has a division dealing with small cases, which is known as Small Cases Division. As such, cases can be ruled within a short period since delays can be avoided and the formal procedures, which may accompany cases, can also be exempted from the court process. Since this court provides specialized services to all citizens without any fear or favor, it has turned out to be one of the best courts that hear cases related to tax evasion. The court has emerged as effective and instrumental since it conducts a thorough investigation before coming up with a ruling. As a result of this court, tax issues in the U. S. can be addressed with a lot

The Outsourcing of Information Technology Jobs Research Paper

The Outsourcing of Information Technology Jobs - Research Paper Example This paper discusses various aspects of IT outsourcing phenomenon and the reasons as to why firms outsource. According to reports by Gartner, the worldwide IT services outsourcing market is currently worth about 50 billion USD with the ITES and BPO market being worth about 130 billion USD (Pettey, 2009). The economic recession has had a downward pressure on the outsourcing market. In 2008, India with its leading companies such as Accenture, Infosys, Wipro, TCS and many other had a 63% market share of the IT outsourcing market. This is a decrease from the 70% market share it enjoyed in 2007 when India was the preferred destination and now other countries such as Eastern European regions, China, Taiwan and South Africa have entered the market. This is a reduction from the 2004 figures that placed the IT outsourcing market at 163 billion USD (McCue, 2005). Clearly, the market has been worsted by the economic recession, failure of large banks and insurance companies, failure of large automobile manufacturers and many other firms. Outsourcing has been around since a few decades and the best examples were outsourcing of food and catering business, janitorial services, housekeeping work and so on. This was actually also called as ‘in sourcing’ since outside companies and vendors came to work inside a firm. The outsourcing and in sourcing phenomenon has been regarded as one of the forces that flattened the world. Among the 10 flattening forces, Friedman has listed five forces that can be regarded as leading to outsourcing. The forces are: 4th force Open-Sourcing; 5th force Outsourcing; 6th force Offshoring; 7th force Supply-Chaining and 8th force Insourcing (Friedman, 2005). The world firs realized the benefits of outsourcing when Kodak outsourced its whole IT department to IBM for 6 billion USD. Up till then, IT outsourcing was only done for data entry work, electronic transcription of hard

The Portrayal of Realism and Fantasy in Children's Fiction Essay

The Portrayal of Realism and Fantasy in Children's Fiction - Essay Example This document highlights the portrayal of liberalism and fantasy in children’s fiction novels â€Å"Christmas Carol† and â€Å"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz† (Adsit, 2011). Realism and Fantasy in Literature Realism refers to a truthful aspect of life which are put forward after observations of different facts and features of events taking place in the life. In literature, realism is an approach, which describes the understanding of life without a subjectivity of an ideal life, fantasies or romantic interests. These realistic approaches are the product of all the influential bodies pertaining in everyday life and they are placed specially among the lower and middle classes of the society. The social factors of the environment play a very significant role in realistic literature. The psychological elements of individuals are also examined in realistic approach in the literature (Villanueva, 1997). Realism in literature emphasizes on proper documentation of the events, which are taking place, with an insight of all sociological aspects and details of facts and figures of life. There are few elements, which are avoided like poetic diction and melodrama in this approach and the subjects’ issues of lower middle class families of societies are elaborated. (Stoodt, 1996) Fantasy, on the other hand depicts such characters which may not be real, they can vary from fairy tales as well as about demons that take us on a journey of imagination and metaphysical form of literature (Horne, 2011). Most of the Science fiction tales come under this category. The metaphysical literature deals with such subjects which can be supernatural and the characters will inhibit traits of super natural beings like dragons and wizards, fairies or vampires (Miller, 1997). Hence, the fantasy literature incorporates such super natural or unrealistic notions, which may provide an understanding of the structural elements and characteristic features taking place in such sett ing. (Schmitz, 2008) Most of people enjoy fantasy because of the concepts underlined in the structure of this kind of literature (Hudson, James, & Christopher, 2003). People are more inclined towards the theories in literature, which depict good against evil, magic and demons and explore concepts, which in reality may not be of any use but may have a profound impact on how a person perceives the situation. (James & Mendlesohn, 2012) Studies of Realism and Fantasy Literature in Schools In order to keep children focused on realities of life and the impact of realistic events in the lives of a common man, it is necessary to introduce realism in literature in studies by introducing novels which are depicting which can have a positive impact in their upbringing and development (Adams, 1990). However, practically speaking the idea of realism in fiction novels may differ in different people (Klemmer, Anoop, Chen, Landay, & Aboobaker, 2000). The depiction various scenarios by writers may be perceived differently because there are cases when a realistic event may seem illusory to one person and realistic to another (Wolf, Coats, & Enciso, 2010). Exploration is required in terms of confusion of such realism in literature so that there is understanding of literature as a basic course in children’s school to promote learning through fictional tales.

Modren and tradition family Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Modren and tradition family - Research Paper Example Since I had a question in mind I was somehow sunken in thought was not very keen to notice the old man approach me. He greeted me casually. Without hesitating, he went ahead to answer my question even before I presented it to him, he seemed to have read my mind. He said, â€Å"I missed something when I was a child. I missed the childhood games. My son, during our times we played with small glass bells in the street, hiding, and swimming in the pool†, He paused, I wanted to intervene but he proceeded, â€Å"Our grandfathers dug wells by their bare hands using crude tools, and it was pure water and stemmed from under the ground. We were excited when we played in front of our mothers. Our mothers cleaned our clothes and utensils using it. We also played with neighbors’ children after we had finished studying holy Quran. There were no schools in those days. The days were awesome, those days are gone my son†. When he had finished his speech, he took a deep breath. Act ually, I liked his speech, and I admired the days. The conversation looked more like an imagination despite being the naked truth. When I reported home that night, I talked with my mother about the old man that I had met in the beach. She told me, â€Å"listen my daughter, everyone lives in their generation. If you went back to those old days, you would loathe them and admire to come back to your days, the old were characterized by difficulties that could only be handled by them that lived at that time†. She went on to mention that there was no electricity, cars, planes, and electronic machines among other things. Just like the old man, she reiterated that formal education was nonexistent. I agreed with her that if it were not for education today life would be very boring. The industries were undeveloped and the jobs done were manual in most occasions, they revolved around farming, fishing, hunting and gathering, grazing cattle, and delivering water to houses. She noted sever al benefits that emanated from the traditional way of life. People used to live in communities, the concept of capitalism was nonexistent, and the families had no privacy. The responsibilities were clearly defined; the women cooked food, took care of the children, brought water from the spring, cleaned stuff, and served their husband’s family without any objection. The community defined individual rights, most women and men had no rights in those days because the man’s father was the ultimate decision maker even if the man got married. The old man and my mother had similar points of view as well as differences; I realized that they had different opinions between traditional and modern family setups. This arouses a desire in me to focus about traditional and modern family systems in my country. Although some people believe that the traditional family is the best than modern family structure, both traditional and modern family has positive and negative implications in te rms of their lifestyle, education and the rules governing them. The traditional and modern family setups are different in the way individuals used to reside and the way it is done today. Traditionally an extended family lived in one big house. It consisted of the grandfather, parents, uncles, aunts, and their children. Both the male and female children occupied the same bedroom, likewise the parents would share bedrooms and

Do lung epithelia in COPD undergo transition to behave more like Essay

Do lung epithelia in COPD undergo transition to behave more like finroblast - Essay Example This process of repair, if successful, is beneficial to the body because it enables the affected tissue restore its functions (Pauwels et al., 2012). However, the repair process can be defective leading to collagen overproduction, formation of excess fibroblasts and fibrosis. This defective repair of epithelia tissue has not been well explored. A more detailed evaluation is important to give proper insight on whether pathological repair of the lung tissue because of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease can lead to conversion of an epithelial cell into a fibroblast. To begin with is an elaboration of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary disease (Barnes and Kleinert, 2004). It is characterised by ineffective flow of air in and out of the lungs. Less air flows in and out of the lungs because air sacs and airways have lost elasticity, air sac walls are destroyed and airway walls are inflamed and thickened. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease is a disease that keeps progressing (getting worse) since onset and makes it difficult for a person to breathe. COPD is found to start and develop slowly and increasingly limit an individual’s ability to perform tasks (Control et al., 2012; Romain A. Pauwels and Rabe, 2004). In some countries like United States of America, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease is a common term for two conditions namely emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Air sacs walls are damaged in emphysema thereby lose their shape and appear floppy. Further damage leads to damage of air sac walls leading to larger but fewer air sacs instead of several tiny ones. Hence, the respiratory function of the lung is greatly affected and subsequently gaseous exchange is reduced too. In most instances, emphysema is accompanied by chronic bronchitis hence use of a Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease as a term to describe the two condition (Han et al., 2010). COPD symptoms rarely occur at early stages

Interracial Friendships Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Interracial Friendships - Coursework Example Several, if not most of the dilemmas and challenges confronted by partners in an intercultural romantic relationship are indefinable, such as communication dilemmas with each other and with both parties’ loved ones, the approval or blessings of their immediate families, gender stereotypes, individual aspirations and values, rearing children, and the notion of the nuclear family vis-à  -vis the extended family. Hence, the concern is where to initiate in deciphering the intricacies of intercultural romantic relationships and build up harmony within two very different cultures. The response to this concern is difficult to figure out and will most definitely differ from one intercultural relationship to the next; nevertheless, the fundamental notions are both plain and simple, namely, education, wisdom, communication, respect, and tolerance. Computer-mediated communication can facilitate intercultural relationships mainly through the Internet which provides another perspective and means for people to communicate and meet with unfamiliar people for the first time, set off meaningful and pleasurable discussions or conversations, and construct secure, long-term intercultural relationships, comparable to face-to-face interactions. Through regular and far-reaching verbal communication of social information, couples interacting on the Internet could vigorously commit in self-disclosure and strengthen intimacy and ties. However, CMC could also hinder a good intercultural relationship because of the inherent ambiguities that come from communication technologies such as the Internet. There are things, such as emotional and facial expression, that are important in building a strong intercultural relationship that only a face-to-face interaction can facilitate. Popular culture is the assemblage of concepts, ideas, notions that are popular, trendy or widespread and create the dominant culture. These ideas are profoundly manipulated by mass media.  

Concept of true and fair view Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Concept of true and fair view - Essay Example It is perceived to be realized by abiding by all additional minor accounting standards. True and fair view is the rule that is utilized in guidelines ranging from financial standard and auditing to an organization’s law acts. The phrase is applicable to the process an auditor will execute a verdict on the accounting activities of a corporation (Elliot & Elliot 2004, p. 21). The true and fair value concept is significant because it is employed in guaranteeing and examining if accounts indicate the correct business activities. In addition, the true and fair value concept has helped in abolishing mechanical utilization of accounting principles (Arnold, Hope, Southworth & Kirkham 1994, p. 17). The users of the true and fair value concept include auditors and accountants. Both the auditors and accountants use this concept to set down accounting statement whether they are internally-focused management accounts or external financial accounts. Auditors use the concept to design and perform with extreme determination that will help reveal any significant or material misstatements or errors (Friedlob, & Plewa, 1996, p. 67). Firms that utilize the true and fair value concept are those that are registered in the London Stock Exchange, for example, ABB, an international organization dealing in mechanics and primarily in the automation and power technology sectors, and Heathrow Airport Holdings, which operates four airports in Britain (Glautier & Underdown 1994, p. 51). There are a number of issues relating to the true and fair value concept. One, the accounting books should have noted all the business dealings accurately. The concept should record correct business dealings to ensure proper functioning. Two, the accounting books should be made according to the appropriate standards of accounting and have adhered to accountancy principles given by a number of regulatory agencies (Kotter &Cohen 2002, p. 35). This should reflect the adequate accounting standards in finance.

Termination of Pregnancy on Women Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Termination of Pregnancy on Women - Essay Example This paper will analyse the impact such TOP's have on women from the perspective of different genres, facilitated by my work in gynae nursing and looking after women undergoing such medical conditions along with other gynae related ones. To enhance my understanding of this along with the needs of these women, I feel an urge to explore this issue in more detail with relevant research producing this article. There are eight different types of miscarriages with the following five self explanatory: threatened miscarriage, incomplete miscarriage, complete miscarriage, missed miscarriage and recurrent miscarriage. Blighted Ovum occurs when the fertilized egg implants itself into the uterus but fetal development never begins. Ecotopic pregnancy occurs when the fertilized egg implants itself in places other than the uterus which can cause severe maternal complications if not treated in time. The last, Molar Pregnancy, is abnormal growth of tissue within the uterus during the fertilization process. They are all generally referred to as miscarriage by most though, applicable when the fetus is lost within the first 20 weeks of gestation. Vaginal bleeding is meant to last for a week or so, on the same pattern as a normal menstruation. Light bleeding is also an after effect, known as spotting due to the clots and/or bits of tissue. As for the normal monthly menstruation cycle, it should resume after three to six weeks though. Symptoms of pain are usually centered around the lower abdominal area and may last up to two days, often resembling that pain during a womans' period. Breast discomfort may also be an after-effect, lasting for approximately a week in the form of engorgement or leaking milk. Some of the pregnancy hormones are also said to remain in the blood for about a month or two after the miscarriage. Religious and Cultural Most religions and cultures place a high value on sexual purity, privacy and modesty and the woman plays a key role due to her 'child bearer' status. In India as well as Pakistan, a womans' procreative role is a salient disappointment when failed, often leading to emotional imbalances for the weaker sex. As for small agrarian societies, the disappointment may be more pronounced due to ignorance and an anthropologically sounder footage for extremism. To Wetzel (1982) in the article 'Miscarriage: A Special Type of Family Crisis' (1987, p. 305), "Miscarriage is a special type of dismemberment; the unborn fetus occupies a limited, semi-visible role. After the spontaneous abortion, there is usually no funeral or death ritual, but loss is felt". The vagueness of the term 'life' has led to cultural uncertainty and a lack of culturally defined rituals for the miscarriage process. In fact, hospital procedures regarding the dead fetus disallow the mother to see it and furthermore, most of them end up as remains in hospital sewage. Thus, the unavailability of such ritualistic transitions

The Mafia Theory Essay Example for Free

The Mafia Theory Essay David E. Scheim has published two books claiming that the Mafia were responsible for the assassination of John F. Kennedy. He believes that it was organized by Carlos Marcello, Santos Trafficante and Jimmy Hoffa. This theory is based on the idea that the Mafia were angry with both John F. Kennedy and Robert Kennedy for their attempts to destroy organized crime. Scheims theory was supported by Trafficantes lawyer, Frank Ragano, who published the book Mob Lawyer, in 1994. The theory is also supported by the investigative journalist, Jack Anderson. G. Robert Blakey, chief counsel and staff director to the House Select Committee on Assassinations from 1977 to 1979, published The Plot to Kill the President in 1981. In the book Blakey argues that Lee Harvey Oswald was involved but believes that there was at least one gunman firing from the Grassy Knoll. Blakey came to the conclusion that the Mafia boss, Carlos Marcello, organized the assassination. Anthony Summers is the author of The Kennedy Conspiracy. He believes that Kennedy was killed by a group of anti-Castro activists, funded by Mafia mobsters that had been ousted from Cuba. Summers believes that some members of the CIA took part in this conspiracy. In his book, JFK: The Second Plot (1992), Matthew Smith points out that Thomas H. Killam, a man who worked for Jack Ruby, claimed that there was a link between his former employer, Lee Harvey Oswald and the Mafia. He told his brother, I am a dead man, but I have run as far as I am running. Killam was found dead in an alley with his throat cut in March, 1964. In October, 1991, Chauncey Holt confessed to John Craig, Phillip Rogers and Gary Shaw about his role in the assassination of John F. Kennedy. He claimed Peter Licavoli, a leading figure in the Mafia in Detroit, had organized the conspiracy and named Charlie Nicoletti, Charles Harrelson and Charles Rogers as the gunmen. In 1992 the nephew of Sam Giancana published Double Cross: The Story of the Man Who Controlled America. The book attempted to establish that Giancana had rigged the 1960 Presidential election vote in Cook County on John Kennedys behalf, which effectively gave Kennedy the election. It is argued that Kennedy reneged on the deal and therefore Giancana had him killed. The next crime figure to confess to the crime was James Files. He claimed that two Mafia leaders, Sam Giancana and Johnny Roselli organized the assassination. Charlie Nicoletti was identified as the other gunman.

Logistics And Supply Chain Management Definitions Business Essay

Logistics And Supply Chain Management Definitions Business Essay In modern competitive business world, every organization strives for excellence. To achieve and maintain this, the organization needs to put in all necessary measures to remain competitive within the industry it finds itself. One of such measures is logistics excellence. (Durin et al 2011). A major contributing function for organizational excellence has to do with the management of its logistics. However in recent times, logistics excellence is taken for granted and presumed to be the norm, but only to be recognized when there emerges some major problem.  [1]   Since the Criminal Libel Law was taken off the statutes books in 2001, the Ghanaian media landscape is currently touted or hipped as one of the most independent media regimes in the West African sub-region. This has led to the proliferation of print and electronic media to the extent that the media market is currently becoming saturated.  [2]  According to the National Media Commission (NMC, 2006), Ghana has 106 newspapers made up of 11 dailies, 67 weeklies, 23 bi-weeklies and five tri-weeklies. More than 50% of the news papers currently in circulation have come into existence in recent years. Many of them have sprung up in the past five years, providing readers with a wide range of new publications. At national level, among the 11 national dailies, the state-owned Daily Graphic is the oldest and most widely-read newspaper in Ghana, and it is distributed in all 120 districts nationwide. Established in 1950 and 100% government-owned, the Daily Graphic currently has the highest circulation figure.  [3]  The companys leadership role in the print media as indicated above began before the advent of the repeal of the criminal libel law. It is interesting to note that Ghanaians casually refer to any media print at first glance as graphic. This not withstanding demonstrates the strength the company draws from this brand name. However, due to the proliferation of other print media as a result of the repeal of the criminal libel law, fierce competition has started to emerge within this industry. The state owned and private print media market is becoming saturated to the extent that almost all media prints virtually sell at the same price. An example of such are the, Ghanaian Times, The Mirror, The Ghanaian Observer, 90 Minutes, Accra Daily Mail, and the Weekly Spectator which sells at GH 1.50, whilst others like The Daily Guide, The Dispatch, Daily Graphic, The Guide, The Statesman and Business and Financial Times also sell at GH2.00. One way to retain customers and remain competitive and, at the same time increase bottom-line margins has been to cut down prices. Interestingly, price reduction in this instance may not be very possible because market shares are somewhat fixed and would lead to lesser margins instead. A better way for companies to still make profits and remain viable is to embark on an effective and efficient logistics management system (Christopher, 2011). This is because sales revenue increases would be more difficult to achieve than logistics cost reductions. The effective management of logistics activities such as customer service, distribution and reverse logistics would play significant roles alongside other logistics activities in improving an organizations stance in such an environment. Reverse logistics to a considerable extent is not well known and not practiced within the Ghanaian business environment. This is because logistics has been looked at in most instances from only one perspective. It has always been looked at from the point where products are manufactured, packaged, stored in a warehouse, sold, and then shipped to the customer and the process ends. However there are more dimensions to this. In addition to managing outbound goods, logistics managers are also responsible for the flow of returned goods, re-packaging, including customer service and final disposition of returned items.  [4]   Considering the print media for instance, the issue of unsold media prints could be looked at as waste since they cannot be sold the next day. The need to manage waste materials and returned goods is fast growing in all kinds of industries. Currently, companies notably Xerox, Eastman Kodak, Mobil, Home Depot, and Ethan Allen Furniture to name just a few, have recycling programs that meet the needs of their individual industries.  [5]  Although these are foreign companies, they derive numerous advantages and benefits from the relevance of reverse logistics practices. In a way these could be very much applicable to most organizations in Ghana for which GCGL is not an exception. Undoubtedly, most firms are now recognizing reverse logistics as a component of the total logistics management process. Stock (1998) and Hansen Harps( 2002) advocated that innovative firms that develop an expertise in reverse logistics activities and considers them as a set of business process adds value, generate revenue, improve customer satisfaction, achieve significant cost savings and gain competitive edge in their various markets. The GCGL stands the chance of gaining all these benefits as well as competitive advantage over its competitors in the area of cost reduction, enhanced quality, branding of their product and maximizing customers loyalty when reverse logistics practices are effectively adopted. Reverse logistics has the following benefits: Enhance Customer Service. The customers perspective is one key economic element driving organizations to develop reverse logistics strategy. Customers now consider returns policies when making purchasing decisions. If GCGL makes its returns policies more restrictive while its competitors continue to offer liberal returns policies, the firm will have placed itself at a competitive disadvantage. The whole purpose of logistics strategy is to provide customers with the level and quality of service that they require and to do so at less cost to the total supply chain. ( Rogers and Tibben-Lembke 1998) Distinguish itself with Customers. Embarking on an effective reverse logistics strategy will offer GCGL the opportunity to differentiate or distinguish itself with customers. This is because how a company handles returns is often evaluated by customers as an important factor to choose when a future purchase happens. According to Daugherty et al (2002), a well designed reverse logistics system can promote longer-term relationships. Furthermore, customers are more likely to buy from retailers who outperform other retailers on returns handling. Knock Off Competition. GCGL management will stands to benefit from the knowledge of the companys logistical performance which could be used to influence decisions and aid in the formulation of corporate goals and objectives to offset competition. Achieve Green Image. The GCGL by engaging in reverse logistics stands to gain a good environmental image with the customer which could invariably promote better customer relations. Having such an image can be part of a customer relationship strategy, especially due to the increase of environmental consciousness by society as a whole. The overall reverse logistics programme effectiveness will have indirect benefits for the firm, such as better corporate image or improved levels of customer satisfaction to retain customers and as well stand the competition within the industry. (Jayaraman and Luo2007) Need to Control Costs. Frequently, manufacturers treat recovery of products and packaging as an afterthought. A well-managed reverse-logistics program, however, can bring enormous savings in inventory-carrying, transportation, and waste-disposal costs.  [6]   Enjoys Goodwill. The goodwill associated with practicing an effective and efficient distribution and reverse logistics strategy has not been fully discovered by most companies in Ghana. The Goodwill that GCGL could earn from acting in a socially or environmentally responsible manner can produce real value. This can create substantial customer loyalty.(Rogers and Tibben-Lembke 1998) 1.2 Research Problem In Ghana intense competition within the print media industry has to a large extent stabilized the price ceiling of media prints. The situation has been aggravated by political influences as political parties have delved the opportunity of coming up with their own media prints to propagate party agendas. Whilst GCGL media prints specifically the Daily Graphic has been acclaimed a national newspaper, and hence mostly report on broad national issues, many others focus and take sides on political issues that would interest party members. As a result market shares are more or less stable and only sway when a particular media print covers a more topical or sensational issue that cuts across a general national interest. The likelihood of dwindling margins cannot be over emphasized in such circumstance. The more convenient means for GCGL to make profits is to embark on an effective logistic management to cut down logistics costs and to remain competitive in business. On the other hand most organizations have not fully embraced reverse logistics for reasons best known to them regardless of the benefits that could be realized on embarking on effective reverse logistics practices. The issue is that there is little demand for knowledge within the mindsets because it has been presumed that reverse logistics inherently deals with the least favored aspect of organizational activities (Hansen Harps, 2002). This is because most firms do not view reverse logistics as a core competence but as something to be ignored as much as possible (Hansen Harps, 2002). The print media products normally have life cycles ranging from a day to maximum of about a week. What happens to unsold products and those that are no longer of use to the consumer does not seem to derive much concern from the publishers. This situation does not only create loses but also goes to add filth to our environment causing health and other environmental problems in the long run. Conducting a research to unearth the best possible means for GCGL to improve upon its current logistics management trends and practices, to improve profit margins and as well create value for their products that have ended their life cycle is the main focus of this thesis. 1.3 Research Questions In order to identify the extent of logistics management activities that GCGL is currently engaged in and analyze them, the thesis would seek answers for the following questions: How are the logistics activities pursued in the organization? What distribution system is the company employing? How is return flows managed? 1.4 Research Objectives The study has the following objectives: To identify the logistics and supply chain activities the company is engaged in To identify and assess the effectiveness of the distribution system To describe and assess the impact of reverse logistics practices on profitability 1.5 Significance of the Study The study will bring out any shortfalls that are inherent in GCGLs logistics practices and inform management adequately to develop sound logistics plans. Additionally, it will serve as a reference document for the GCGL logistics department to effectively manage their day-to-day logistics activities. The study will also be beneficial to the companys third party logistics providers, as the document will assist them to adopt the appropriate logistics procedures and hence ensure effective communication and integration among them. The thesis will also be beneficial to other print media organizations as well as those in other industries to focus on reverse logistics strategy as a source of gaining competitiveness amongst others. 1.6 Limitation of the Study 1.7 Thesis Organization The study will be organized into five chapters. Chapter one is the introduction and will comprise the background, problem statement, aims and objectives and significance of the study. Chapter two is the literature review and will highlight existing definitions and works by researchers related to the area of study. Chapter three is devoted to the methodology used in this study. The chapter looks at the study area, design of study, data collection approaches, description of the study, sampling and the constraints/problems encountered and chapter four will summarize the major discussions of the study. Chapter five will highlight on the important issues in the summary and make recommendations. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVEIW 2.1 INTRODUCTION Fierce competition in todays marketplace has forced business enterprises and organizations to invest in and focus on supply chain and logistics management to be more competitive and as well, remain in business. Logistics has now been seen as the growth and dynamic functions in the success of many different operations of an organization. Logistics activities such as distribution communication, customer service, inventory management, materials handling, packaging, and traffic and transportation procurement have led to the growth in telecommunication and transportation technologies (Rushton et al 2006). Whilst logistics is often seen as planning orientation and framework that seeks to create a single plan for the flow of products and information through a business, supply chain management builds upon this framework. It seeks to achieve linkage and co-ordination between the processes of other entities within the pipeline, i.e. suppliers and customers, and the organization itself (Martin Christopher 2011). A lot of research works on the concepts of logistics and supply chain management and their impacts on the successes and failures in industries and businesses have been carried out. This paper will therefore review aspects of the available literature and research works that view logistics and supply chain management in their definitive contexts with special emphases on activities that relates to customer service, logistics distribution systems and Reverse Logistics. 2.2 LOGISTICS AND SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT DEFINITIONS 2.2.1 Logistics Management The term Logistics originated from the military and was used basically to describe the movement of personnel and materials during wars and also in emergencies. It was later adopted by businesses and organizations and became a part of commonly used terminology in professional societies and academic programs, and was defined in various ways to satisfy trends and developments (Rushton 2009). The Council of Logistics Management (CLM), one of the leading professional organizations for logistic uses the term logistics management to describe the process of planning, implementing and controlling the efficient, cost-effective flow and storage of raw materials, in- process inventory, finished goods and related information from point of origin to point of consumption for the purpose of conforming to customer requirements (Lambert et-al, 1999). Alan Ruston et-al (2007) defined Logistics Management by the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (CSCMP) as that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverses flow and storage of goods, services and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers requirements (CSCMP, 2006). Martin Christopher (2011) stated that logistics is the process of strategically managing the procurement, movement and storage of materials, parts and finished inventory (and the related information flows) through the organization and its marketing channels in such a way that current and future profitability are maximized through the cost-effective fulfillment of orders. Starting from the first definition, although these authors pointed out that the ultimate disposal, recycling and reuse of products should be considered as activities in logistics management, the CLM definition above was silent on them. The definition only took into consideration the forward aspect of logistics focusing on the end product reaching the final consumer according to consumers requirement. The questions here are that; what happens to the product if it does not conform to the customers requirement and also how will the product be managed after the final consumer has exhausted the full use of the product? In other words, CSCMP indicated and emphasized on forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers requirements. This definition to a considerable extent answers the questions which were ignored by the CLM as it considered reverse flows in addition. Martin Christopher stressed on how organizations could maximize current and future profitability through the cost-effective fulfillment of orders. Although the definition did not specifically mention reverse flows, it could be implied that such activities if undertaken could contribute to the organizations profitability. In summary, it could be mentioned with certainty that all the definitions above place some emphasis on logistics activities to typically include inbound and outbound transportation management, fleet management, warehousing, materials handling, order fulfillment, logistics network design, inventory management, supply/demand planning, and management of third party logistics services providers. Additionally the inclusion of sourcing and procurement, production planning and scheduling, packaging and assembly, and customer service were mentioned by Christopher. It is worth mentioning that logistics must be involved in all levels of planning and execution. This has to do with the strategic, operational and tactical levels. Planning at these levels should not be done in isolation else the synergy to be derived from the various functions would not be realized (Lambert et al 2009). Logistics management is therefore an integrating function, which coordinates and optimizes all logistics activities, as well as integrates logistics activities with other functions including marketing, sales manufacturing, finance, and information technology (Alan Mckinnon, 2001). It is essential that positive planning approach is adopted by ensuring that the operation is set up to run properly. The two parts of logistics management has to do with inbound and outbound logistics. One way to envisage the two concepts is about ensuring and managing that the operations are set up to run properly by doing the right thing or preparing for and planning the operation. Thus s upply and material management represent the storage and flows into and through the production process, whiles distribution represent the storage and flow from the final production point through to the customer or end user. Logistics management from this view point is the means whereby the needs of customers are satisfied through, the co-ordination of the materials and information flow that extends from the market place through the firm and its operation beyond that to suppliers. To achieve this, there should be a wide integration within the organization and also a synergy between the marketing and manufacturing within the organization rather than a fragment separate activities (Spekman, KamauffJr et al (1998) Logistics is therefore essentially an integrative concept that seeks to develop a system-wide view point of a firm. It is fundamentally a planning concept that seeks to create a framework through which the needs of the market can be translated into a manufacturing strategy and plan, which in turn links into a strategy and plan for procurement.  [7]   The CSCMP definition laid emphasis of logistics management being part of supply chain management which pre-supposed that other influences on the logistics activities abound to ensure their effective functioning. A working definition for Logistics Management for this thesis would therefore be the (CSCMP 2006), which states that, it is that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverses flow and storage of goods, services and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers requirements. 2.2.2 Supply Chain Management Supply chain management has been mentioned in the (CSCMP 2006) definition for Logistics Management. It referred to logistics management as a subset of supply chain management. Meanwhile these two terms have been used interchangeably in most literature. Supply Chain Management has defined supply chain management as the planning and management of all activities involved in sourcing and procurement, conversion, and all logistics management activities. Importantly, it also includes coordination and collaboration with channel partners, which can be suppliers, intermediaries, third party service providers, and customers. In essence, supply chain management integrates supply and demand management within and across companies (CSCMP, 2006). Supply chain here is viewed as a single entity rather than series of fragment element such as procurement, manufacturing and distribution. It goes further to talk about the integration of information systems in the supply chain rather than merely acting in isolation for each of the separate component. It was further indicated that supply chain management is an integrating function with primary responsibility for linking major business functions and business processes within and across companies into a cohesive and high-performing business model Also, it included all of the logistics management activities noted above, as well as manufacturing operations, and indicated that it drives coordination of processes and activities within and across marketing, sales, product design, finance, and information technology (Martin Christopher2011) Christopher (2011) also defined supply chain management as the management of upstream and downstream relationships with suppliers and customers in order to deliver superior customer value at less cost to the supply chain as a whole. From the authors point of view, supply chain is the stream of processes of moving goods from the customers order through the raw materials stage from the supplier, down to the production process, work assembly, and distribution of products to the customer. He argued that supply chain management could be termed as demand chain management to reflect the fact that the chain should be driven by the market, not by suppliers. Also the word chain should be replaced by network since there will normally be multiple suppliers and, indeed, suppliers to suppliers as well as multiple customers and customers customers to be included in the total system. Extending this idea it has been suggested that a supply chain could more accurately be defined as a network of connected and interdependent organizations mutually and co-operatively working together to control, manage and improve the flow of materials and information from suppliers to end users (Christopher 2011). The CSCMPs and Martin Christophers definitions above both made mention of the fact that supply chain encompasses logistics management which is the supply, materials management and distribution but rather goes further to argue that supply chain incorporates suppliers, suppliers to suppliers , as well as multiple customers which seeks to achieve linkage and co-ordination between the processes of other entities in the pipeline and the organization itself through the sharing of information on demand. Chopra and Meindl (2007) defined supply chain as consisting of all parties involved, directly or indirectly, in fulfilling a customer request. They went on further to say supply chain includes not only the manufacturer and suppliers, but also transporters, wholesalers, retailers, and even customers themselves. Here the supply chain is referring to the customers need or what he or she intends to purchase. This implies that all the stakeholders that are involved in contributing their quota to satisfy the customer should work hand in hand to fulfill that purpose. Christopher (2011) finally indicated that all firms have supply chains of varying degrees, depending upon the size of the organization and the type of product manufactured and managing the chain of events in this process is what is known or referred to as supply chain management. He went further to state that effective management must take into account the coordination of all the different pieces of this chain as quickly as possible without losing any of the quality or customer satisfaction, while still keeping costs down. In essence, whilst logistics management deals with integration of functions within an organization, supply chain management takes care of this integration and extends it across firms in the supply chain. Figure.1 is a diagrammatic representation of logistics and supply chain management indicating how logistics is integrated in supply chain management. Raw material Components Packaging items Bought in part Imported materials Production process Work-in- progress Packaging unitization Finished goods Inventory warehouse Depots distribution End user Supply Materials management Distribution Suppliers Logistics customers Supply chain Supply side Upstream Inbound Demand side Down stream Outbound Information Transport Reverse Logistics = Supply +Materials management +Distribution Supply Chain =Suppliers+ supply +Materials management +Distribution+ Customer (Alan Ruston et al 2007: 5) 2.3 LOGISTICS AND SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES The domain of logistics activities is to provide customers with the right goods in the right place at the right time. It ranges from providing the necessary subcomponents for manufacturing to having inventory on the shelf of the retailer to having the correct quantity. The major issue that logistics attempts to resolve is to decide how and when raw-materials, semi-finished, and finished goods should be acquired, moved, and stored.  [8]   Ensuring an efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services and related information as said by Rushton et al (2010) needs an effective and effecient logistics activities to be able to meet customers needs and wants at the right time, and at the right. Lambert et al (2008) and Langley (2009) both outlined the key activities required to facilitate the flow of a product from point of origin to point of consumption to meet the end user as follows: Customer Service Demand forecasting/ planning Inventory management Materials handling Order Processing Packaging Part and Service Support Warehousing and Storage Procurement/ Sourcing Return goods handling Reverse logistics Transportation Distribution Manufacturing 2.3.1 Customer Service Many attempts have been made to define the term customer service. However, depending on the organizations core business that its provides, customer service will differ. Lucas (1996) defined customer service as the ability of knowledgeable, capable, and enthusiastic employees to deliver products and services to their internal and external customers in a manner that satisfies identified and unidentified needs and ultimately result in positive mouth -to- mouth publicity and return business. Lambert et-al (1999) also used the term customer service to describe the process which takes place between the buyer, seller, and the third party. The process result in a value added to the product or service exchanged. He went on further to say that the value added in the exchange process might be short term as in a single transaction or longer term as in a contractual relationship. He again mentioned the value added is also shared, in that each of the parties to the transaction or contract is better off at that completion of the transaction than it was before the transaction took place. Lucas (1996) distinguished between internal customers and external customers. The internal customers he said comprised peers, co-workers, bosses, and subordinates, whilst eternal customers constitute vendors, suppliers, walk-in-customer, various telephone callers. Even though Lambert et al (2009) did not mention internal customers, he captured external customers in his definition and went on further to talk about value creation within the transaction period to achieve a cost effective way in the chain of activities. They stated that the value added products or services are enhanced when the time and place utility between the buyer and seller are met and as well expanded and considered. Such conditions are generally considered as the seven right of customer service. These are the right of quantity, cost, product, customer, time, place, and condition (Rushton et al, 2007). From the above, meeting the needs of customers should be very important in every organization even though it is very difficult in maintaining them and to achieve this is to make sure products and services are rendered at the right time, at the exact place in the right condition, at the right cost to add value to avoid customer complains. Rushton et al (2007), Lambert et al (1999), Christopher (2011) all emphasized on the element of customer service as, pre-transaction element, transaction element and post-transaction element. Where the pre-transaction element focuses on the companys policies concerning customer service. Transaction relates to element directly linked to physical transaction such as order cycle time, inventory availability, condition of goods, system accuracy, product substitution etc. Lastly those elements that occurred after the delivery has taken place is referred to as the post- transaction element and these include the installation of warranty, repairs and service part, return policy, customer complaints and claims. Customer service therefore plays a crucial role in organizations as far as growth and profitability are concerned. 2.3.2 Demand forecasting/Planning Demand forecast is defined as statistically based initial estimate of future demand. It is well indicated that a dem

Effectiveness of Sports Psychology

Effectiveness of Sports Psychology With reference to published literature critically discuss the factors influencing the effectiveness of a sport psychologist Introduction Sport psychology has grown remarkably from its roots in the amorphous and poorly understood disciplines of athlete motivation and performance counselling 40 years ago (Dosil, 2005; Cox, 2005). Modern sport at every level of competition and in virtually every sporting activity has benefited from the application of psychological principles and mental training in the pursuit of maximum athletic performance, stress management, improved training attitude and every other aspect of sport where the mind, emotions and physical performance intersect. Sport psychology is unique amongst the applied psychology disciplines for a number of reasons. The phrase suggests that there are accepted common practices employed by sports psychologists and its is acknowledged as with any science, the baseline approaches to the education, training and certification of the sport psychologist are well understood across the world of sport and athletic competition. The feature of sports psychology practice that tends to differentiate it from other form of applied psychology is the general closeness of the relationships developed between an individual athlete and their psychologist. The common professional boundaries of professional detachment are different in sports environments where intense emotion and competitive desire are the fuel that both drives the athlete onwards and makes them vulnerable to psychological stresses. Many sport psychologists play a multi-dimensional role in the lives of their athlete clients trained professional psychologist, friend, sounding board, confidante and advisor are each possible and entirely ethical component to the relationships that may develop in practise (Watson, 2008, 1). This paper considers the question of effectiveness of the sports psychologist as considered within the following analytical and discussion framework. A detailed and properly academic analysis of why the science of sports psychology is effective in the context of competitive and recreational sport is beyond the scope of this paper. The discussion that is developed below is premised on the proposition that sports psychology is a proven and well accepted body of science that applied in accordance with its principles will generally benefit an athlete. All athletes in all sports, team and individualÂÂ   from cross country running to equestrienne events, in all age groups and genders are amenable to its benefits (Kornspan McCracken, 2003: 36: Donohue, 2001: 19). The important question in the present context is what factors, professional and personal render a sports psychologist successful in a particular application. Included in this discrete issue are a wide variety of potential eth ical considerations. The question requires that a preliminary working definition of sport psychologist be articulated; the definition as stated below also assists in defining the general areas of professional engagement within sport. The discussion will then engage two broad and interrelated questions: what steps sports psychologists take in any given assignment to achieve maximum effect with their athlete; where are the typical problem areas that require attention in the sports psychologist / athlete relationship? The emphasis of the discussion will be directed to Educational Sports Psychologists as this area of sport psychology provides the most immediate connections between athletic performance and the application of psychological principles. These questions also require consideration of the type of person who is more likely to succeed as a sports psychologist as with any professional activity where the subject is a human being, the delicate interface between the knowledge based psychological education that helps to comprise ones intellect and the often empathetic talent of dealing with people is important (Armstrong, 2001; Griffin, 2008:10). The paper draws upon the significant representative sampling of the authorities as appended to this paper in this regard. The paper concludes with some thoughts concerning the anticipated continued expansion of the sport psychologist role at all levels of sport. If these professionals have not already achieved such status in most sports, it is submitted that the progression observed in the relationship between athletes and sports psychologist will trace the progression from pop psychology to important training and coaching asset to an indispensible component of the training regimes and competitive performance of all serious athletes.ÂÂ   Sport Psychology definition and scope of the discipline The literal definition of sports psychology is a deceptively straightforward one. According to Cox (1998) and confirmed as accepted throughout the literature, sport psychology is a science in which the principles of psychology are applied in a sport or exercise setting (p.4). The definition does not depend on the presence of a professional relationship with elite or aspiring high performance athletes; the principles of sport psychology apply with necessary circumstantial modification to every level of athlete. In this paper, the term sport psychologist shall extend to any professional engaged in the psychology of sport or exercise (Douthitt Harvey, 1995: Griffin, 2008)). As a general proposition there are three different types of sport psychologists recognised in the field; a great deal of the work carried out by a sport psychologist may include work in more than one category in the case of a particular athlete or assignment. For the purposes of the discussions set out below, the boundaries between each sub discipline shall be regarded as relatively fixed. In the present discussion, it is assumed that each category member is a fully trained and accredited psychologist as defined by the relevant statue I their jurisdiction (British Psychological Society, 2009: American Psychological Society, 2009). The first category is the Clinical/Counselling Sport Psychologist (Cox, 2005).This person is trained in clinical or counselling psychology and is a licensed psychologist. These psychologists are trained to assist athletes to deal effectively with emotional and personality disorder issues that affect particular athletes. The range of prospective sport patients that this professional might assist is very broad; an example would include treating a female gymnast who suffers from bulimia or other eating disorder given the competitive pressures to perform at a specific weight. Treating a downhill skier of motorsports racer who has difficulties recovering from a particular crash or injury might be another. The second category is the grouping that includes the Educational Sport Psychologist (Cox, 2005; Kramer Moran, 2008). These psychologists come to sport with an extensive academic and practical background in university departments of physical education and sport specific training. The objective of an intervention or ongoing assistance provided by these individuals is to assist the athlete to develop a wide range of potential psychological skills for performance enhancement. Specific techniques such as various mental imagery sequences, self talk, the building of per performance or per competition routines are all included in the work carried out by the psychologists in this category (Morris Summers, 2004; Boyce King, 1993). These psychologists also provide services to athletes in a team environment. This particular definition also provides an important qualification concerning the general role of psychology in sport. Sport psychologists are not monopolists in this area. Many athletes have the benefit of psychological support as provided by a trainer, a position coach or a team manager (Kornspan Duve, 2006; Wilson Stephens, 2005). This element of sport psychology is very important but is excluded from consideration here. The final category is the Research Sport Psychologist. This group is comprised of scientists and scholars of sport psychologist. Theirs is an important support role to the entire discipline (Cox, 2005). Sport provides science with ongoing opportunities to gain access to athletes and teams in every sport from its preseason, in season and post season /off season periodization. The psychologists engage in ongoing research and experiments in the field. Applied sport psychology Applied sport and exercise psychology involves the extension of psychology theory and research into a specific field. While the particular athlete or team will inevitably attract the most attention in these applications, given that the pursuit of athletic excellence is a primary objective, the psychologist has a significant role to play in the education of any coaches, teammates, parents, fitness professionals, and athletic trainers about the psychological aspects of the specific sport or exercise activity. Applied sport and exercise psychologists seek to facilitate maximal involvement, performance, and enjoyment in any sport environment. The practice of applied sport and exercise psychology usually involves a combination of individual and group consulting or counseling depending on the style of the professional conducting the intervention and the needs of the client. The realty of amateur sport is that many athletes do not have the access or means to have a personal psychological consultant (Maclean Hamm, 2008: 352). Notwithstanding access questions, the principles that support a proper practitioner / athlete relationship are the same. Key Issues Sports psychologists face similar professional demands in areas such as continuing education and training. It is submitted that given the ceaseless commitment to athletic improvement, the development of new training techniques, nutritional and supplement approaches, physical monitoring, equipment trends and related factors places a substantial pressure on a sports psychologist to remain current in all aspects of their practice (Nesti, 2004). At its best articulation, sport psychology has a transformational power that elevates performance (Armstrong, 2001, 4). Experiential learning cycles are often at the heart of successful sport psychology practice, because sport performance typically provides immediate feedback as to the efficacy of the cycles developed for the athlete. Sport psychology encourages an intensely personalized approach to all facets of it application; a significant relationship exists between the personality of the practitioner and the effectiveness of the applications; the simple observation that not every psychologist can succeed in this area due to the limitations of their own personality is reinforced here. For even the most engaged and cutting edge practitioners, there are practical considerations to the discipline that are submitted as both constants and as overarching issues that never decline in their importance. These are discussed here under the general rubric of ethics; as the examples below illustrate, the boundaries between professional competence, the duty of care to the athlete, continuing education concerning best practices, and the maintenance of appropriate ethical standards in all matters involving an athlete or team are not always clear cut. It is important to appreciate that notwithstanding the unique demands of an individual sport or the immediacy that may be a part of the practitioner / athlete relationship, a psychologist remains bound by the statutory provisions and the ethical regulations of their jurisdiction. The various Codes of Conduct do not create separate regimes for the sports psychologist; the attention to the athlete relationship must be observed with the same care as patient relationships in clinical or therapeutic settings. It may be observed that in an elite sports team setting, where there is a large staff of professional sport persons that span a number of disciplines, only the team physician and the sport psychologist are liable to a standard of ethical conduct that extends beyond their contractual obligation to the team or the common law duties of care that might apply to a coach athlete or trainer athlete scenario (Nesti, 2004; Watson, 2008; Morris Summers, 2004). Ethical codes may be clearer c ut when the practitioners relationship is with a adult professional golfer or well paid footballer; the youth and overall potential for vulnerable persons to be working with a sports psychologist render the standard ethical duties very important in practice. One might conclude that given the acceptance of sport psychology as an important element of modern sport training and competition, that the more closely one could integrate physical and psychological, athletic training the more efficient the training over all and the more successful the athletic enterprise. Leaving aside the impossibility of installing combined coach / practitioners at every level of sport, a seeming next best option would be to ensure a close and centralised relationship between the athletic and psychological training programmes. There are clear advantages to such a coordinated approach. The training time required for each aspect would be optimized; the psychological training could be seamlessly integrated into every segment of the physical training routines. The trust implicit in the athlete / coach relationship could assist the athlete in overcoming any apprehension about what to them may be novel or disconcerting mental training approaches (Wright Erdal, 2008: 187). The disadvantages are equally stark and it is submitted that the maintenance of practitioner and coaching boundaries is important in several potential areas of difficulty. Where the coach and the psychologist are working very closely together in a team sport environment, there is the concern that the athlete may be apprehensive about confiding in the psychologist or making a complete commitment to a psychological training programme for fear of any mental / emotional weakness being revealed to the coach and thus compromising playing time or status on the team (Watson Clement, 2008, 3). The relationship between psychologist and athlete, like coach and athlete is inherently a power relationship; the knowledge that the practitioner applies to the psychological aspects of training create a dependency that must not be permitted to influence any other relationships that the athlete has.ÂÂ   As Nesti notes (2004), the task facing the practitioner is to simultaneously maintain openness to the athletes and coaches without abandoning or diluting their most personal and deeply held values. This makes considerable demands upon the psychologist working in a sports environment where the dominant values are those centred on self-preservation and material gain.(102) The ethics rubric takes on a further and more complex dimension when a team or sports organisation retains a sport psychologist to provide training. The ethical duties and their corresponding lines can become blurred. The following hypothetical will illustrate the issue. A sport psychologist is retained by a football team to help develop what the coach describes as mental toughness (Wann Polk, 2007).ÂÂ   The coach wants his players to be more aggressive, more truculent and more physical in their approach to the game Im tired of our guys getting pushed around. It may be readily appreciated that there is a thin almost indiscernible boundary between the coachs toughness and a training programme that may as easily promote rough, violent or anti-social attitudes amongst the players. The coach is determined to take newfound toughness instilled in the mental training regime to a new competitive level. The psychologist is now placed in a difficult position to train as the clubs retai ner requires, or to potentially assist in the promotion of emotional attitudes that are not necessarily in the individual athletes interest (Goldstein Iso-Ahola, 2006). The sports psychologist has an important preventative / restorative role in all aspects of athletic training. Burnout is a psychological problem at every level of competitive sport, youth leagues to the professional ranks. (Kalliath Beck, 2001; Matheson, Mathes Murray, 1997) The same fundamental trust relationship between practitioner and athlete that build mental power in sport must also be applied where appropriate to protect if an athlete is not emotionally suited to a particular type of training a practitioner has a positive ethical obligation to discontinue it, no matter who is paying for the services. Future Directions in Sport Psychology It is impossible to provide a definitive conclusion as to the future direction of sport psychology within the framework of this paper. However, two tentative propositions may be advanced. The first is a predicted even greater reliance by elite athletes on sport psychologists to provide them with support in training and competition. Every athlete in every sport seeks the proverbial edge, so often measured in millimeters or milliseconds. In an era of immense potential financial returns for sport success, a sports psychologist is a cost-effective training aid. The second prediction is connected to the development of the discipline itself. Competitive athletes are result driven; for society as a whole, there are fewer ways to empirically measure societal athletic or sport exercise success. The cost of health care as attributed to poor life style choices and sedentary attitudes may militate in favour of a public push to incorporate sports psychologists into the public health mainstream, on the same cost effectiveness rational as observed in elite sports. Works Cited American Psychological Association Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2009) [online] Retrieved November 18, 2009 at: Armstrong, Scott. Are You a Transformational Coach? 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Annals of the American Psychotherapy Association 9.1 (2006): 19 Kremer, J., Moran, A. P. Pure Sport: Practical sport psychology. London: Routledge (2008) Maclean, Joanne, and Shannon Hamm Values and Sport Participation: Comparing Participant Groups, Age, and Gender. Journal of Sport Behavior 31.4 (2008): 352 Matheson, Hilary, Sharon Mathes, and Mimi Murray The Effect of Winning and Losing on Female Interactive and Coactive Team Cohesion Journal of Sport Behavior 20.3 (1997): 284 Morris, T., and Summers, J., eds. Sport psychology: theory, application and issues (2nd Ed.). Chichester: Wiley (2004) Nesti, Mark. Existential Psychology and Sport: Theory and Application. New York: Routledge, 2004 Wann, Daniel L., and Joshua Polk The Positive Relationship between Sport Team Identification and Belief in the Trustworthiness of Others North American Journal of Psychology 9.2 (2007): 251 Wilson, Marcia A., and Dawn E. Stephens Great Expectations: How Do Athletes of Different Expectancies Attribute Their Perception of Personal Athletic Performance? Journal of Sport Behavior 28.4 (2005): 392 Watson, Jack C and Damien Clement Ethical and Practical Issues Related to Multiple Role Relationships in Sport Psychology (2008) [online] Retrieved November 22, 2009 at: Wright, Perry B., and Kristi J. Erdal Sport Superstition as a Function of Skill Level and Task Difficulty Journal of Sport Behavior 31.2 (2008): 187